History of Baltimore City Public Schools

During the colonial and early national periods, there was very little schooling for the majority of the boys and girls. It was not uncommon for boys of wealth to have private tutors or to be sent from home for their education. Tutors frequently lived with private families or taught the children of a few families who lived close together.

At times, the clergy, in addition to their regular duties, undertook the education of children. Schools were established as a necessary adjunct to the churches. The earliest schools in Baltimore were established by individuals who sought to support themselves by instructing the young. Yet, despite rather modest beginnings, interest in education increased rapidly as the city grew, and by the turn of the century, teachers were so numerous in Baltimore that it was difficult to keep track of them. Schools of many types and descriptions–primary and secondary–were open to those children whose parents had the wherewithal to pay.

By the early part of the nineteenth century, the need for adequate educational facilities for poor children had become apparent. Primary schools, which were established to help meet this deficiency, were largely the work of charity associations and church groups. Charity schools were also established by philanthropists.

Plans for establishing an academy in Baltimore were made as early as March 7, 1786. Enthusiastic community spirit and cooperation attended the establishment of the first Baltimore Academy. Unfortunately, it did not receive continued support and was discontinued soon after December 1787. The Methodists were responsible for the next Baltimore Academy. In May 1796, they purchased a large dance hall in Baltimore and turned it into a schoolhouse for the education of youth of any faith. Within three months, the academy’s enrollment reached more than three hundred. 

The general school law of 1826 empowered the mayor and City Council of Baltimore to establish a separate system of public or primary schools in the city. It was not until March 1828, however, that an ordinance was passed creating a Board of Commissioners of Public Schools invested with power to establish and regulate a system of free public schools for the City of Baltimore. 

After careful consideration of the situation, the board submitted its views to the City Council. Thus, it was given permission to receive the city’s distributive share of the school fund for the years 1825-28 from the Treasurer of the State, which amounted to only $1,431.41. On July 21, the board resolved to establish four schools; by September 9, teachers were selected; and on September 21, 1829, the first public school in the City of Baltimore was opened. By December of that year, three schools were operating, with an enrollment of 269 pupils.

In the nineteenth century, because of its location at the head of the Chesapeake Bay and its proximity to the west, Baltimore became a natural terminus of internal American trade on the Atlantic seaboard. The city, in addition to developing its contacts with the expanding west, concentrated on its maritime pursuits and gained world renown for the perfection of its swift-sailing schooners, the clipper ships. Its valuable contributions to the development of the railroad and the magnetic telegraph were further evidence of Baltimore’s continued interest in facilitating transportation and communication. 

Unfortunately, the history of Baltimore from 1850 to the Civil War was marked by destructive fires, disastrous floods, and disgraceful riots. From 1854 to 1860, the corruption and violence of the Know-Nothing party earned the city the epithet, “mob town,” and it was not until 1860 that a victory of the Democratic party brought about needed municipal reforms. Despite the sordidness of the times, constructive forces were at work. Cultural, educational, and civic improvements were made; philanthropic endowments were increased, and advances in commerce and industry were notable. 

Baltimore’s location destined it to become identified with both the North and the South during the Civil war. Although the city experienced a long period of harsh military occupation at the hands of the Federal forces, Baltimore escaped many of the ravages of war. It was in this historic setting that the public schools of Baltimore experienced an era of significant growth and expansion. The period 1839-66 was the formative period of public education in Baltimore and the system which evolved was the product of years of test and trial. 

The control of the schools remained in the hands of the Board of School Commissioners, which was elected annually by the City Council. The growth of the system made it difficult for this group of laymen to perform their functions effectively. Duties of the superintendence gradually became part of the responsibilities of the Treasurer of the Board. When revisions in municipal financial procedures relieved the treasurer of many of his tasks, he was able to devote his time to duties of a professional nature. The office of treasurer was abolished on June 20, 1866, and John N. M’Jilton was appointed the first Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

The class system of instruction was introduced and the services of the schools were expanded to include secondary schools for girls; separate primary schools for beginning students; and a nautical school for boys. The program for boys’ high school was increased to five years and that of the girls' to four years. A primary objective of this additional year of instruction was to prepare youth for teaching in the schools. 

The need for a “normal school” was deeply felt, but it was not until 1866 that the Maryland State Normal School was founded. Professional examinations, teachers’ institutes, and normal classes were among the attempts to raise standards of the teaching profession. 

The establishment of the Public Floating School, in 1857, marked a significant contribution in the field of vocational education, and also represented a community approach to the solution of an educational problem. In further response to community needs and demands, the evening schools were successfully operated. 

From 1839 to 1866, the commissioners struggled to house the school population. The total school budget grew from less than twenty-five thousand dollars, in 1840, to over a quarter of a million dollars in, 1865, and the main sources of revenue were derived, for the most part, from a municipal school tax and from tuition fees. The appropriations, however, proved inadequate to the demands, and the salaries of the professional staff remained generally low. 

The Maryland School Law of 1865 was interpreted as a threat to the mayor and City Council over the control of Baltimore public schools, and it was not until 1867 that a further revision of the Maryland Constitution, with its resulting new school law, restored the municipal authorities with the power to regulate the public schools through their ordinances and resolutions. 

The number of public schools increased from nine, in 1839, to eighty-eight in 1866; and their total enrollment grew from 1,226 to 18,307. Drop-outs continued to be alarming and the magnitude of non-attendance caused commissioners to advocate a compulsory education law in Maryland. 

Despite the growth of the public schools from 1839 to 1866, the majority of school-age children in Baltimore continued to be educated in numerous private schools. The commissioners labored to overcome prejudices against the schools–in particular, the objection that they were “poor” schools. Various attempts were made to inform the public of what the schools were trying to accomplish and to present them in a favorable light. Included among the aims of public education were the development of the true patriotic citizen and the inculcation of moral and spiritual values considered essential to good character. 

In this era of forward movement, the schools tried to keep pace with the growth of the city and with advances made in public instruction in other parts of the country. The efforts of the commissioners, which were strongly motivated by a zeal for public education, received the unqualified praise of educators who visited the schools of the city. Notwithstanding the disturbing influences of the Civil War, the schools continued relatively uninterrupted.
 

February, 1904, Baltimore was almost destroyed by fire. Damaged estimated at more than one hundred twenty-five million dollars included the destruction of seventy-three city blocks; one hundred forty acres of the trade center–where business houses, wharves, and warehouses were located–were completely ravaged. Fortunately, not one school building was destroyed by the calamity. Out of the ashes of a stricken city, a new and modern Baltimore emerged... more quickly and more splendidly than anyone had believed possible. 

Steps were taken to make Baltimore a healthy city to live in. A proper sewage system and a disposal plant replaced the old cesspools and stinking gutters. The water supply was extended and improved, and a filtration plant erected. Along with harbor improvements came the gradual elimination of cobblestone streets as Baltimore geared itself for faster moving vehicles.

During World War I, Baltimore experienced rapid expansion and war prosperity. When the United States entered the conflict in 1917, this great industrial and shipping center marshalled its resources and played a vital role in the war effort. With the horrors of war came the influenza epidemic, which struck with great severity. The city attempted to return to its normal way of life, with the cessation of hostilities and, within a short time, it shared the booming years preceding the Great Depression with the nation. 

The public schools, during the period 1900-1925, reflected the uncertainties of the times. Two decades of conflict provided the transition between the traditional school system of the nineteenth century and the modernization of the schools in postwar years. Although the Board of School Commissioners was hampered in its work by political interference, by 1925, it had achieved a degree of independence from municipal control that permitted the progressive development of the school system. Also, despite being hindered by dissension and crippled by inadequacies of plant, personnel, and financial support in this era, the progress of the schools was enhanced by the vision and leadership of Superintendent James H. Van Sickle and Superintendent Henry S. West. 

Mr. Van Sickle, who headed the schools from 1900 to 1911, challenged the practices of the traditional school and, within a decade, introduced innovations designed to improve the administration of the system and the caliber of professional staff. More adequate supervision resulted in greater uniformity among the schools, and school services were expanded to meet the needs of pupils through kindergartens, preparatory classes, and manual training and cooking centers. Improvements in teaching methods and in grouping of pupils for effective instruction resulted from Van Sickle’s stimulation. 

The administration of Dr. Henry S. West, 1920-25, was a notable chapter in the history of the schools. The Strayer School Survey furnished the basis for a long-range program of development, and, under Dr. West’s leadership, action was taken to implement many recommendations of the commission. The organization of the school system on a 6-3-3 basis and a general revision of the course of study in the schools was accomplished. The reorganization of the administrative and supervisory staff; launching of the new school building program; betterment of teachers’ salaries; and encouragement of teachers toward professional development were contributions to the progress of the system made during West’s superintendency. 

In 1912, attendance laws raised the compulsory school age to fourteen years. In 1925, when the population of Baltimore rose to 800,055, the number of pupils grew to 96,630. Throughout the period, problems of overage and retarded pupils remained acute and the excessive number of dropouts was attributed primarily to economic factors. The schools were governed without corporal punishment, and ungraded classes were set up to deal with troublesome pupils. The extension of vocational education; the inauguration of junior high schools; and the institution of ability grouping indicated the increase of attention given to meeting the needs of individual pupils. 
Although the professional staff was increased to more than three thousand teachers to man the one hundred-fifty schools in 1925, the problem of securing trained personnel plagued the administration throughout most of the period. The unattractive teaching salaries, however, did not dampen the enthusiasm of many who remained devoted to their positions and who fervently strove towards professional development. 

Municipal and state funds continued to be the chief sources of revenue for operating the schools. Although the budget had increased seven times in the twenty-five year period and had exceeded $8 million in 1925, in caparison with other large cities, Baltimore’s expenditures for public education were exceedingly modest. It was not until the passage of the loans of 1920 and 1922 that sufficient funds became available to relieve the handicap of an antiquated and inefficient school plant. 

The schools as a whole enjoyed the confidence and support of the public, even though the superintendents and commissioners were subjected to frequent criticism. The period marked an increase in the interaction between school and community. The community enjoyed the extension of school services, and the schools profited by the cooperation and assistance of individual citizens and community groups. 

As this chapter in Baltimore’s educational history drew to a close, the community set its goal to provide “for every child in the city of Baltimore a full-day’s schooling, in a fit and properly equipped classroom, under a well-trained and adequately paid teacher.”

Important historical eras are often  entered quietly, without cataclysm  fanfare, or even notice. For  Baltimore City Public Schools, it  happened in 1960. That year,  George B. Brain arrived from  Bellevue, Washington, to become  only the 12th superintendent since 1866. Brain was the first of what might be called the “modern” superintendents–those who presided over a system of change; whose pronouncements and programs generated extreme controversy; and whose employment sometimes fell victim to acrimony. 

Previous superintendents had ruled in relative calm. David E. Weiglein (1925-1946) had educated a generation of Baltimoreans without much controversy. Even the historic decision to desegregate the schools in 1954, almost immediately after the Supreme Court’s Brown vs. Board of Education decision, had been made without huge disruption, especially among those who set policy and administered the system. (There had been considerable protest in the neighborhoods, particularly in South Baltimore, but even that was to pass away.) As a matter of fact, John H. Fischer. the superintendent who presided over desegregation, won the Hollander Foundation Award in 1955 for his “outstanding contribution toward the enforcement of equal rights and opportunities in Maryland.” 

Another frontier was crossed the year George Brain moved across the continent: Baltimore’s school system became majority-black. It had happened rapidly after the unification of the white and “colored” systems at mid-decade, but it had been going on for years. White enrollment peaked in the 1930’s. Black enrollment increased from 31,300 in 1942 to 47,300 in 1952; while white enrollment fluctuated, declining during the war years and increasing in the early 1950’s. (Before desegregation, black and white city teachers had been consulting and consorting for some time. The “small town” nature of Baltimore was a factor–and still is.) 

In 1955, the unified Baltimore system was 60 percent white in student population. In the1959-1960 school year, there were 2,000 more whites than blacks in a system whose total enrollment was increasing by 3,000 students a year–a sign of difficulties to come. The year Brain arrived, enrollment was 87,634 black and 82,588 white. 
Baltimore had become a launching pad for “white flight.” Clifton Park Junior High School had 2,023 whites and 34 blacks just after desegregation; 10 years later, it had 2,037 blacks and 12 whites. Garrison Junior High School in Northwest Baltimore went from 2,504 whites and 12 blacks to 297 whites and 1,263 blacks in the same period. Brain predicted shortly after his arrival that by 1970, half of Baltimore’s children would be “socially deprived.” He was on the money...and money was leaving Baltimore. 

The flight of the white middle class and, later, of the black middle class, to the suburbs contributed as much as anything to the severe problems experienced by Baltimore City schools in the 60’s, 70’s, and 80’s. These people invested their time and money to help make their suburban schools superior. Their higher incomes were reflected in a state school-finance formula that has never “equalized” Baltimore City with most of the rest of Maryland–and that, in fact, finds Baltimore falling farther behind in the 1990’s. 

At the same time, Brain had been on the job only a few months, when 14-year-old William J. Murray, III, walked out of the Bible-reading that was part of opening exercises at Woodbourne Junior High School and virtually every other school in the United States. Murray’s mother, Madalyn (later, Madalyn Murray O’Hair), eventually took her case against prayer and Bible reading in the schools to the Supreme Court, where she won in June 1963. 

Meanwhile, although the Federal Civil Rights Commission declared, in 1961, that Baltimore was the only Southern city to have met the challenge of the 1954 Brown ruling, there were signs that racial equality meant more than opening school’s to both races. Thus, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which had been so instrumental in taking the Brown case to the high court, kept the pressure on. 

Juanita Jackson Mitchell, president of the Maryland NAACP, charged that George Brain was discriminatory in his promotion practices. Both Brain and his predecessor, Fischer, moved blacks they considered the strongest leaders across the color-line into formerly all-white schools (but never higher than assistant principal). Mitchell charged that there was not a single black principal in a predominantly white school; in 1963, 53 of the city’s 189 schools had all-white faculties and 67 were entirely black. 
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 gave the City $4 million for educating the poor. (It was the predecessor of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, President Lyndon Johnson’s “Great Society” program that was to change the face of American urban education.) Brain used the money to expand an “Early School Admissions” project in a 6-square-mile “target area.”